May 3 is one of the most important holidays in the Polish calendar. The Constitution Day of May 3 commemorates the adoption of the first constitution in Europe and the second in the world in 1791.

A Nation in Crisis

By the late 18th century, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth — once one of Europe’s largest and most powerful states — was in deep decline. Years of political dysfunction, foreign interference, and internal corruption had left the Commonwealth vulnerable. The liberum veto, which allowed any single member of parliament to block new laws, paralyzed decision-making. Meanwhile, neighboring powers — Russia, Prussia, and Austria — eyed the weakened Commonwealth hungrily, already orchestrating the First Partition of Poland in 1772, stripping it of vast territories.

Recognizing the urgent need for reform, a group of enlightened statesmen and patriots — including King Stanisław August Poniatowski, Ignacy Potocki, and Hugo Kołłątaj — set about drafting a new constitution. Their goal was clear: to save the nation by modernizing its political system, strengthening central authority, and promoting the common good.

A Government Based on Enlightenment Ideals

Adopted on May 3rd, 1791, the Constitution of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was the first modern written constitution in Europe, and the second in the world after the U.S. Constitution of 1787.

Deeply influenced by the Enlightenment, it aimed to create a government grounded in reason, justice, and public welfare, rather than the selfish interests of a few. It introduced the separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, an idea inspired by the political philosophy of Montesquieu.

This separation was designed to prevent tyranny and ensure balance, creating a system where no single branch could dominate the government.

Moving Toward Equality and Representation

While it did not establish full democracy as we understand it today, the May 3rd Constitution made historic steps toward greater inclusion:

• Townspeople (bourgeoisie) were granted new political rights, including personal security, property rights, and limited participation in governance.
• Peasants, the majority of the population, were for the first time recognized as part of the nation and placed under the protection of the law. While serfdom was not abolished, this acknowledgment laid the groundwork for future social reforms.

This widening of political participation was revolutionary at a time when much of Europe still functioned under rigid, aristocratic hierarchies.

Strengthening the State

The Constitution also addressed Poland’s political chaos by:

• Abolishing the liberum veto, ending the practice of legislative paralysis.
• Strengthening royal authority, turning the monarchy into a constitutional monarchy where the king ruled with and under the law.
• Limiting the excessive privileges of the nobility, rebalancing power toward the common interest of the nation.

These measures sought to create a more efficient, fair, and unified state, capable of defending its independence in an increasingly hostile environment.

Immediate Consequences and Long-Term Impact

The proclamation of the Constitution sparked fierce opposition from conservative factions within Poland and alarmed neighboring monarchies, who feared the spread of revolutionary ideas. A confederation of Polish nobles, backed by Catherine the Great of Russia, launched the War in Defense of the Constitution. Despite heroic efforts, the reformers were defeated. This opened the door to the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 and, eventually, the complete disappearance of Poland from the map after the Third Partition in 1795.

However, the Constitution of May 3rd became an enduring symbol of Polish identity, resilience, and democratic aspirations. It kept alive the hope of regaining independence during more than a century of foreign rule. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, it inspired uprisings, political movements, and a commitment to the values of freedom and national sovereignty.

Today, the May 3rd Constitution is celebrated as a milestone of human rights and governance, not only in Poland but worldwide — a proud testimony to the nation’s enduring spirit.